Romani Language Resources: Dictionaries

1: Angǔchev, Iliia (2009). TSygansko-bŭlgarski rechnik = Lromanu-dasikanu pheryasnikus. [Romani-Bulgarian dictionary]. Sofiia: Izdatelstvo Paradoks. ISBN: 9789545531071. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/711840143. [Text in Bulgarian]

A descriptive dictionary of approximately 10,000 words from the speech of Romani musicians in the Bulgarian cities of Liaskovets, Kotel, Zlataritsa, Tucha, Vŭrbitsa, Omurtag, Sliven, Shumen, and Razgrad. The compiler does not mention any specific dialect names in the very brief introduction, and Vlax Romani, Balkan Romani, and Sinté are all spoken in Bulgaria. Without a grammatical sketch it is more difficult to determine the dialect class, however based on certain phonetic characteristics, such as the palatalization of velars such that the common Romani [kin-] is pronounced /tsin-/, this dialect appears to be Drindari.

Basic parts of speech are provided, and word stress is indicated. Verbs lemmas are accompanied by all personal forms for the present tense, however no past-tense forms are given, nor any indication of transitivity or other verbal morphological features. Some past-tense forms can be found in the examples; however, this is not adequate to determine how all personal forms are constructed or to ascertain the forms used for the 3rd-person singular aorist forms of intransitive verbs. Lemmas are accompanied by an impressive number of examples. The orthography used is the Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet with a few modifications. Aspirated consonants are indicated with the Cyrillic letter <х> after the consonant, e.g. <пх> = /ph/. The digraph <лр> rather uniquely represents the uvular /ʁ/, which the compiler mistakenly calls ‘cerebral’ in the introduction.

2: Boretzky, Norbert and Birgit Igla (1994). Wörterbuch Romani-Deutsch-Englisch für den südosteuropäischen Raum: mit einer Grammatik der Dialektvarianten. [Romani-German-English dictionary for the Southern European region]. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN: 9783447034593. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/470150326. [Text in German]

 

A multi-dialect, descriptive Romani-German-English dictionary and grammar primarily of Balkan dialects. This is an almost encyclopedic dictionary and will be appreciated especially by those studying Romani from a linguistic perspective. It is currently one of the two most comprehensive, scientific dictionaries of Romani available, the other being Courthiade (2009). Interestingly, according to the introduction, the dictionary was originally intended to serve a normative function. However, the compilers ultimately agreed that as Romani was only in the early stages of standardization it was premature for the dictionary to serve that function. Abandoning the normative aim allowed them to include much more material than a normative dictionary could realistically accommodate. It includes material from a number of Balkan dialects, primarily from countries and regions of the eastern portion of former Yugoslavia (Vojvodina, Serbia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Bosnia and Hercegovina), such as Bugurdži, Drindari, Gurbet, Kalderash, Ursari, as well as closely related dialects spoken in Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary.

Glosses are provided in English and German, and there are German-Romani and English-Romani indexes. Part of speech is indicated for each item and verb types are elaborately labeled as transitive, intransitive, causative, and reflexive. As aorist tense forms can vary from dialect to dialect, the variant forms are given where the lemma is otherwise the same across dialects. Grammatical observations, contextual examples, and word etymologies are also provided. The orthography used is the typical South Slavic alphabet in Latin script, but also includes the letters <ć>, <ś>, <dź>, and <ź> to distinguish the more palatal version of these sounds from the typical <č>, <š>, <dž>, and <ž>. Word stress is indicated.

3: Borrow, George (1923). Romano lavo-lil: word book of the Romany, or, English gypsy language, with specimens of gypsy poetry, and an account of certain gypsyries or places inhabited by them, and of various things relating to gypsy life in England. London: Constable. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/215549649. [Text in English]

Reprint. See Borrow (1874)

 

4: Courthiade, Marcel et al. (2007). Dictionnaire rromani oublié: le “Gyök-Szótár” de F. Sztojka. [Forgotten Romani dictionary of F. Sztojka]. Paris: Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/192073642. [Text in French; lemmas glossed only in Hungarian]

 

A reprint of Sztojka’s O császári és magyar királyi fensége József föherceg magyar és czigány nyelv gyök-szótára with an introduction and commentary by Marcel Courthiade. For the full discussion, see Sztojka (1886).

5: Courthiade, Marcel et al. (2009). Morri angluni rromane ćhibăqi evroputni lavustik = Első rromani nyelvű európai szótáram [My first European Romani dictionary]. Budapest: Fovárosi Onkormányzat Cigány Ház--Romano Kher. ISBN: 9789638540867. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/457193701. [Text in Romani]

In full disclosure I (Geoff Husić) served as one of two editors of the English content of this dictionary. This is both a descriptive and normative, linguistically scientific, Romani-multilingual dictionary and grammatical sketch that has attempted to codify a form of European Romani suitable for publication, education, and other literary spheres of Romani life. This is a somewhat artificial form of Romani, but this is not unusual in the sense that many languages have based their literary forms on what, at their beginning, were artificial forms of the spoken language, e.g. choosing vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammatical features from a number of different dialects, especially when there has not been one predominate prestige dialect. In the case of this dictionary, this form is often called Common Romani, which refers to a collection of features which are the most broadly understood by Romani speakers across Europe, while at the same time avoiding words that are peripheral or unique to only smaller numbers of speakers. For the same reason, newer, non-core loanwords into Romani that are specific to only one or two other countries have been avoided. At the same time neologisms that have been recently coined by Romani writers have sometimes been included to supplement the vocabulary, especially for, e.g. technological concepts. The vocabulary for this dictionary was agreed upon by the large number of Rroma contributors, ensuring a product that it both cross-national and representative of the majority of speakers. There is an extensive introduction in both Hungarian and English that clearly delineates the approach, parameters, and aims of the dictionary.

The Romani lemmas are accompanied by glosses in Hungarian, English, French, Spanish, German, Ukrainian, Romanian, Croatian, Slovak, and Greek glosses, in that order.

6: Dawson, Robert (2011). Welsh Romani dictionary. Alfreton: R. Dawson. ISBN: 9781903418741. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/751807784. [Text in English]

A descriptive dictionary, published in two volumes, vol. 1, English to Romani and vol. 2, Romani to English. The compiler states that the vocabulary included was collected primarily from Sampson’s Dialect of the Gypsies of Wales (1926), with additions based on his own observations. He correctly observes that the vocabulary included will not necessarily closely correspond to that used by Rroma of Wales today. It is reasonable to assume therefore that there will be some admixture of older and more modern vocabulary items, although not all are labeled as such. Nevertheless, it is a respectable collection of vocabulary and has some very helpful additional features. For example, in the English-Romani section, rather than just providing lemmas consisting of nouns, verbs, etc., as is common in shorter works such as this, Dawson includes a number of phrasal entries, such as “in high spirits” = ladilo. Verbs are labeled as (v.), but somewhat inconsistently, and there is no indication with English verbs of ambiguous transitivity such as ‘to close’, of whether the verb is transitive or intransitive. Otherwise no other parts of speech are labeled.

7: Demeter, R. S. et al. (1990). TSygansko-russkiĭ i russko-tsyganskiĭ slovar’: kėldėrarskiĭ dialekt: 5,300 slov. [Romani-Russian and Russian-Romani dictionary]. Moskva: Russkii iazyk. ISBN: 9785200004065. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1005672115. [Text in Russian, with explanation of dictionary section also in English.]

A bidirectional, descriptive Romani-Russian dictionary and grammar covering the Kalderash dialect of the Vlax group spoken in the former USSR, which, the compiler explains, has the second largest number of speakers in the territory, Baltic and Ukrainian Romani having the most. The dictionary is also supplemented with a unidirectional Romani-English index, and the “Structure of the dictionary” section is also in English. The dictionary is preceded by an informative introduction giving a detailed overview of the dialects of Romani spoken on the territory of the USSR, and a detailed discussion of the various layers of vocabulary found, e.g. 1) vocabulary borrowed before entering Europe, which is mostly common to all currently spoken Romani variants; 2) that vocabulary which is original but only common to closely-related dialects; and 3) that vocabulary acquired from European languages among which the Rroma have lived. Within this context, he explains that the Kalderash vocabulary in this last category comes primarily from the Banat-Transylvania dialects of Romanian.

8: Demir, Ljatif et al. (2015). Crnogorsko-romski i Romsko-crnogorski rječnik = Crnogorikani-romani thaj Romani-Crnogorikani lavustik. [Montenegrin-Romani and Romani-Montenegrin dictionary]. Podgorica: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva. ISBN: 9788630318924. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956502224. [Text in Montenegrin]

A bidirectional Romani-Montenegrin (former call Montenegrin Serbian) dictionary. The compilers explain that the dictionary is both descriptive and normative. It is descriptive in that much of the vocabulary appears to be based on the Gurbet dialect, although the dialect designation is not mentioned in the introduction. It is also normative in that it includes a large number of Montenegrin calques, as well as many Romani words found in other dialects that have been lost in the speech of the Rroma in this region. The compilers explain it is important to preserve and teach this linguistic heritage in order to fully understand Romani culture. There are approximately 7200 lemmas in the Romani-Montenegrin section. As either a descriptive or normative dictionary it is substantially lacking. Romani lemmas are labeled only for basic part of speech and noun gender. Noun plurals are not provided nor is word stress. Verbs are labeled simply as “verb” with no further guidance provided. In some cases, word variants are provided, which is helpful, e.g. ajrat ‘tonight’ is accompanied by the variants erat, arać, although it is unclear if these are local variants or equivalents from other dialects. No contextual examples or phrases are given except in the case of verbs using the auxiliary del ‘to give’, which is commonly used to create compound verbs, e.g. del avazo ‘to vote’. No etymologies are provided to distinguish core Indic and other early Romani words from later borrowing from neighboring languages. As one of the stated goals of the work is to help understand Romani culture, including etymologies would certainly have been a useful feature.

9: Girtler, Roland (2010). Rotwelsch: die alte Sprache der Gauner, Dirnen und Vagabunden. [Rotwelsch: the old language of crooks, whores and vagabonds]. Wien: Böhlau. . https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/933750293. [Text in German]

I have included this book in order to avoid any confusion that may arise, as the topic of Rotwelsch, a kind of German ‘cant’, or secret language, is occasionally mistakenly found in the context of the Romani language. I suspect that the somewhat ill-defined term 'cant’ explains the erroneous subject heading “Romani language” that has been added to the WorldCat cataloging record for this book. Rotwelsch was used by traveling tradesmen and vagabonds in southern Germany and Switzerland and still exists today among some traveling show people. While Rotwelsch certainly does use some words of Romani origin, the language itself is clearly German, with a large number of loan words from other languages, such as Yiddish, Italian, the Slavic languages, and German regional dialects.

 

The complier includes several wordlists categorized by topic such as clothing, work, beggar terminology, etc. Of the several hundreds of words under these categories, the vast majority are from Yiddish or German dialects. In at least one case, a genuine Romani word is mislabeled.

10: Haliti, Bajram (2011). Srpsko-romski rečnik sa gramatikom i pravopisnim savetnikom = Serbikano-rromano alavàri e gramatikac̦a thaj e vòrtaxramosaripnasqe sikavipnac̦a. [Serbian-Romani dictionary with grammatical and orthographic advice]. Novi Sad: Prometej. ISBN: 9788651506171. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/795506029. [Text in Serbian]

This is the first unidirectional, normative, Serbian-Romani dictionary and grammar. It is a rather monumental work due to the sheer number of vocabulary items covered, approximately 50,000 words. The compiler is a Rrom writer and advocate for Romani rights from Kosovo. He states that the goal of the work is to establish cultural and linguistic bases for standardizing Romani and to support integrating Romani into the Serbian education system. The dictionary is based primarily on the Gurbet, Kalderash, and Arli dialects. However, individual words are not labeled accordingly, and there is no way to distinguish the dialect of the entry if they differ.

Glosses are very basic, and word stress is not indicated. There are no examples with fixed or figurative expressions provided. Basic parts of speech are labeled. The treatment of verbs is, however, somewhat confusing. Verbs are labeled simply as “verb” with no further qualification, such as transitivity. Lemmas have Serbian reflexive and non-reflexive form verbs together, e.g. iskriti (se), which can be confusing, as Romani reflexive and non-reflexive forms often have different stem forms, and that information about the variant forms is not provided. In addition, the Romani verbs are labeled as perfective or imperfective, which makes little sense since Romani does not share the binary verbal-aspect system found in Slavic languages. This label reflects the aspect of the Serbian verb in the lemma, not the Romani one. No aorist forms are provided, which is surprising, considering the stated normative nature of the dictionary, since past-tense forms, as discussed in my introduction, vary substantially among dialects. It would be difficult for a user to know how to derive a past-tense form for a verb such as ćhol ‘to put in’ (under uterati, p. 476). This verb is a shorter-form variant of a fuller form ćhuvel, not found in this dictionary, and most likely has the aorist form ćhutja in these dialects. The form of reflexive verbs that is common in these dialects, whereby the active verb is accompanied by the reflexive pronoun pes ‘self’, a feature borrowed from other Balkan languages, is common in the dictionary, but is not discussed in the grammar section.

11: Hayward, James (2003). Gypsy jib: a Romany dictionary. Wenhaston: Holm Oak. ISBN: 978095334062. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61700598. [Text in English]

A bidirectional, descriptive Anglo-Romani-English dictionary. This is a rather typical collection of Anglo-Romani words and phrases, which, due to its para-Romani nature, I will not treat in full. The compiler’s grandparents were apparently native speakers of Anglo-Romani when it was still to be heard in England, and he became interested in their language as a teenager but was not fluent in the language himself. The work seems typically derivative of earlier works, and even perpetuates some of the errors found in earlier Anglo-Romani dictionaries while also introducing some European features that do not naturally occur in Anglo-Romani.  The dictionary is, however, very entertaining to read, and the photographs and drawings are very charming.

 

12: Kajtazi, Veljko (2008). Romano-kroacijako thaj kroacijako-romano alavari = Romsko-hrvatski i hrvatsko-romski rječnik. [Romani-Croatian and Croatian-Romani dictionary]. Zagreb: Odjel za orijentalistiku Hrvatskoga filološkog društva. ISBN: 9789532960013. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/428896095. [Text in Croatian]

The first comprehensive, bidirectional Romani-Croatian dictionary and grammar. The compiler had a difficult task, as such a large number of Romani dialects, some with strained mutual intelligibility, are spoken in Croatia. He chose as the basis for the dictionary the Gurbet and Arli dialects, as they are represented by large numbers of speakers and are widely represented in the other countries of the Balkans. Gurbet lemmas are unlabeled and Arli lemmas are labeled as such, as are words in other dialects that occasionally appear.

13: Lee, Ronald (2010). Romani dictionary: Kalderash-English = Rromano alavari: Kalderashitska-Inglezitska. Toronto: Magoria Books. ISBN: 9780981162645. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/691744104. [Text in English]

There are so few resources that document Romani as it is spoken in North and South America that we are very fortunate to have access to three books that have been compiled by Ronald Lee. This descriptive dictionary of the Vlax Kalderash dialect is a companion volume to his Romani dictionary: English-Kalderash, and both are, in turn, companions to his Learn Romani (Lee 2005, 2013), see in Other Works Consulted). The compiler’s stated audiences are young Rroma in North America and others interested in Romani. To better serve the first audience, he has chosen to employ a form of orthography easily accessible to speakers of English and Spanish (more below). The vocabulary included is based primarily on the author’s own dialect and is supplemented with useful common Vlax Romani words used by European speakers with which the compiler became familiar during his travels. These European words are labeled as such, with “Eur,” where they occur in the two dictionaries. Lemmas are also labeled for a number of additional features such as European origin, although French and Spanish seem to be the only languages thus labeled. Other topical labels, such as for military, music, neologisms, and slang, also appear.

Basic parts of speech and gender are indicated for each lemma. Only irregular plurals of nouns are provided, otherwise the user must rely on information on plural forms that is found in the grammar section. Explanations such as “Plural nouns such as love ‘money’ and tsáliya ‘clothes’ are entered as nm/pl or nf/pl” are not particularly helpful, without further context. These plurals are, in fact, pluralia tantum, but the compiler does not explain this concept. While the topic of thematic/athematic morphological forms is discussed in the grammar section, entries are not labeled as such, e.g. in the case of athematic verbs. Instead, the user is informed in the grammar section (p. 6) that these can generally be identified by their non-word-final stress. Word stress is only indicated in cases where it does not fall on the final syllable of the word and therefore appears mostly in athematic words. In this dialect, the stress on even thematic adjectives may shift to the first syllable. In such cases this occurs after the definite article, e.g. Wo si manush barvaló ‘He is a rich man’ versus O bárvalo manush mulo ‘The rich man died’. These stress shifts are indicated in the contextual examples.

14: Lee, Ronald (2011). Romani dictionary: English-Kalderash = Rromano alavari: Inglezitska-Kalderashitska. Toronto: Magoria Books. ISBN: 9780981162676. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/712851303. [Text in English]

This is an English-Romani companion volume to the Romani-English counterpart. Please see Lee (2010) for full commentary.

15: Liebich, Richard and Erich Carlsohn (1968). Zigeuner in ihrem Wesen und in ihrer Sprache. [Rroma in their lives and language]. Wiesbaden: Dr Martin Sändig oHG. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/941953643. [Text in German (Fraktur script)]

Facsimile reprint edition of Liebich (1863), therefore also in Fraktur script. This reprint edition has additional commentary and a bibliography written by Erich Carlsohn.

16: Lush, Harold S. (2017). Dictionnaire romani trilingue: anglais-français-romani = English-French-Romani = englisicka-françaisicka-romani alavari. Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN: 9782343131825. WorldCat: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1014150854. [Text in Introductory matter in English and French.]

This work, based on the Lovari dialect, purports to be a trilingual English-French-Romani dictionary, but it is trilingual only for the reason that the English lemmas are glossed in both French and Romani. As there are no French-to-Romani, or Romani-to-French, or Romani-to-English indexes, this approach is of no utility when trying to come from the direction of the Romani word. The selection of words and the forms presented is rather random, and the scope of the lexicon is not clear or discussed in the introduction. At first glance, this appears to be a phrase book, but that misunderstanding is based on the rather confusing and inconsistent way words are presented. The preface was written by Félix Monget, however the authorship of the remaining introductory matter is unclear. This appears to have been written by someone other than Lush, as it is in very poor English, and Lush, who is an American from Indiana, would presumably have written something more idiomatic. The introductory matter also gives no guidance into the structure and intent of the dictionary.

Lemmas are not labeled in any fashion, e.g. for part of speech, noun gender, plural forms, word stress, etymologies, etc. Verbs may be presented in a naked-root form, the 3rd person singular, or another finite form via a phrase, with no consistency. For example, for the lemma “to laugh” he gives the Romani glosses “as, assal”. Confusingly, and with no explanation, the following heading, “he laughs”, is given as “hasal”, “he laughed” as “hasasalo”, and finally “laughter” as “asalimo, asalipe”. Some English lemmas offer a number of variants, with no explanation of their scope, e.g. the entry “Egg = Oeuf = angro, yaro, anro, ando, yanro, kuki, tojaši, andro, ivandro, vandro.” There are a few utterly perplexing entries. For example, there is a heading for English “Me at” (space between letters “e” and “a”). This is clearly a typo, as the Romani gloss is mas, i.e. ‘meat’. However, the French equivalent is glossed as “Moi à”. It is unclear how an error of this nature could have crept in. I can only guess that the French glosses were provided from the English by someone with no familiarity with Romani.

17: Malikov, IAshar (1992). TSigansko-bŭlgarski rechnik. [Romani-Bulgarian dictionary]. Sofiia: Fondatsiia Otvoreno obshtestvo. ISBN: 9789544350147. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28801490. [Text in Bulgarian]

A unidirectional wordlist including approximately 2500 Romani words of the Erli dialect, collected among settled Rroma in Sofia, Bulgaria. This small book actually manages to compact a bit more information than it appears at first glance. While I would not call this a full-fledged dictionary, as a pocket dictionary for language beginners interested in the Bulgarian Romani variants or as a word-identifier, it has its place. Words are not labeled for part of speech, however noun gender, and, occasionally, noun plural forms, are given. Words do have word-stress indicated, which is helpful, as in this dialect there appears to be a great deal of variation in word stress even among related forms, such as in verbal nouns as opposed to their finite verb forms or related adjective and participles, c.f. the entries for (with my romanization) phérdo ‘full’ versus pherdó ‘filled’. The treatment of verbs is somewhat inconsistent.

18: Manush, Leksa et al. (1997). Čigānu-latviešu-anglu̦ etimolog̓iskā vārdnīca = Romanò-lotfitkò-anglitkò etimologitkò lavengirò lil = Romany-Latvian-English etymological dictionary. [Romani-Latvian-English etymological dictionary]. Riga: Zvaigzne ABC. ISBN: 998404548X. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44679224. [Text in Latvian and English.]

A bidirectional, descriptive Romani-Latvian dictionary and grammar of the Baltic Romani dialect. Information on the dictionary structure and pronunciation are in both Latvian and English, however introduction is only in Latvian. Parts of speech are given with English abbreviations and English glosses are included as well. Verbs are labeled for transitivity, and past-tense forms are included. Etymologies for words of non-Indic origin are also given. The orthography uses the Latvian alphabet. Word stress is indicated, as are long vowels. As vowel length is not a universal feature in Romani dialects, this addition is very helpful.

19: Messing, Gordon M. (1988). Glossary of Greek Romany as spoken in Agia Varvara, Athens. Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Publishers. ISBN: 9780893571870. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/19336173. [Text in English]

A descriptive, unidirectional Romani-English glossary and grammar of a variant of Romani spoken in Agia Varvara, a suburb of Athens, Greece. The compiler has achieved all the goals he states in his introduction, despite his humble claims regarding his results. The linguistic material was collected primarily by the compiler himself in situ in the 1970s.

The glossary labels words for basic part of speech, and plural forms of nouns, word stress, and aorist form of verbs are provided. Etymologies are provided for the many Greek and Turkish words in common usage. Verbs are cited in the 1st person singular. Although verbs are not labeled according to transitivity or valency, Messing gives ample examples from which these can be readily gleaned. For example, for the verb ‘to fear’ trašav, which is transitive in English, is governed by the ablative case in Romani, as is illustrated in his example “trašav lestar” ‘I fear him’. It is likely that there are errors in some his definitions and indications of stress, however these seem to be limited.

20: Pabanó, F. M. (1915). Historia y costumbres de los gitanos colección de cuentos viejos y nuevos, dichos y timos graciosos, maldiciones y refranes netamente gitanos. [History and customs of the Gitanos: collection of old and new tales]. Barcelona Montaner y SimónBarcelona Montaner y Simón. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/248268566. [Text in Spanish]

A collection of Caló texts and a bidirectional Caló-Spanish dictionary, a para-Romani dialect that I do not cover in full in this bibliography. Also published in a number of facsimile reprint editions.

21: Papp, János (2008). Cigány-magyar, magyar-cigány kéziszótár = Romane-ungrike, ungrike-romane vasteske alava. [Romani-Hungarian, Hungarian-Romani dictionary]. Budapest: Pappné Darida Andrea Nyelvoktató Kft. ISBN: 9789630647144. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/500633220. [Text in Hungarian]

A bidirectional Romani-Hungarian dictionary and grammar of the Lovari dialect. Although the dictionary contains a respectable number of lemmas, there is not much grammatical insight included in the dictionary section. Gender is indicated for nouns, but plural forms are only provided in exceptional cases, such as in words for which the singular and plural are the same, e.g. dand ‘tooth’. Verbs are labeled as either transitive or intransitive only, and the intransitive label encompasses the passive forms and the reflexive forms using the reflexive pronoun pes. Aorist forms of verbs are not indicated. Fixed expressions or contextual examples are only provided in a few, apparently random, cases. Etymologies are also not included.

22: Rebolledo, Tineo (1909). Diccionario gitano-espanol y espanol-gitano. [Gitano-Spanish and Spanish-Gitano dictionary]. Barcelona: Casa Editorial Maucci. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/03302855. (OA version: https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001807500 ). [Text in Spanish]

The first known bidirectional Caló-Spanish dictionary including 643 Caló lemmas. The work also contains a grammatical sketch, including verb conjugations, irregular verbs, some Caló tales, and a history of the Caló people. As with all Caló dictionaries, the language recorded represents a para-Romani dialect, in which original Romani words are integrated into Spanish grammar, Romani verbal roots have been appended with Spanish personal suffixes and are conjugated in the same manner as Spanish verbs, e.g. for the verb ‘to have’: “tener a. abilar, tereblar”, continuing throughout the various tenses and modes which mirror the Spanish verbal paradigms. Due to the close integration of Spanish and Romani in Caló, the orthography used closely follows that of Spanish.

 

See also Škrabánková (2010:42) in Other Works Consulted and entry for Dávila (1943) for a discussion of overlap between the two dictionaries.

 

23: Rishi, W. R. (1974). Multilingual Romani dictionary. Chandigarh: Roma Publications. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2807494. [Text in English]

 

This unidirectional Romani multilingual dictionary of about 1300 lemmas will appeal primarily to those interested in etymology and the relationship of Romani with Hindi and Sanskrit. There is no introductory text to explain the scope of the work. However, it appears to cover the core of Romani lexicon of Indic origin. It does not appear that vocabulary was chosen from one specific dialect but was chosen from various Romani variants to serve the etymological purposes of the collection. Romani lemmas are accompanied by glosses in Hindi, English, French, and Russian. Etymologies based on Sanskrit or other Indic languages are provided. There are a number of entries for words that are not of original Indic stock, such as the Greek word petalo ‘horseshoe’. They have presumably been included because they entered the language relatively early and are common to many dialects. The compiler also notes words in other languages that are loans from Romani, e.g. Romanian beldie from Romani beli ‘pole’.

24: Rishi, W. R. (1981). Romani-Punjabi-English dictionary. Patiala: Language Department-Punjab. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10278726. [Text in English]

A Romani-Punjabi-English dictionary. The premise of this dictionary was that Punjabi is, according to the compiler’s contention, the closest living Indic dialect in India to Romani, sharing some very similar linguistic structures and some vocabulary unique to only Punjabi and Romani. The compiler does not mention the specific dialect or dialects from which the Romani lemmas are taken, however they appear to be predominately from Balkan Romani dialects. The work serves primarily as an excellent etymological dictionary. Etymologies based on Sanskrit and Persian cognates are provided, and Romani lemmas are glossed with English and their close Punjabi cognates. Lemmas are labeled for basic part of speech and noun gender, but otherwise no grammatical notations are included. The work does, however, include a brief grammatical sketch at the end of the book. A few additional wordlists are included. There is a wordlist for indeclinable adverbs and adjectives, which is very helpful, as these are often “lost” in dictionaries and therefore hard to study systematically. There is also a wordlist for verbs, are also included which is very helpful. Both wordlists also included the English glosses and the Punjabi cognates. The orthography used is that typical of the Balkan dialects, using the typical South Slavic Latin-script diacritics. Word stress is not indicated.

 

25: Rozwadowski, Jan Michal and Edward Klich (1936). Wörterbuch des Zigeunerdialekts von Zakopane. [Dictionary of the Romani dialect of Zakopane]. Kraków: Nakladem Polskiej Akademji Umiejetnosci. WorldCat: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13737518. [Text in German.]

A descriptive, unidirectional Romani-German dictionary of the southern Polish-Romani dialect, a sub-dialect of Carpathian Romani. At the end of the volume are a number of narrative texts which form the basis of the vocabulary included in the dictionary portion. The work was based on unpublished materials originally collected in 1902 by the compiler, Rozwadowski (1867-1935), which was posthumously published with commentary, introduction, and additional material by Edward Klich, in 1936. Prior to Rozwadowski’s death the material had languished for several years, his attention focused elsewhere. Klich is also responsible for noting derivations and etymologies where they occur. Of special interest is Klich’s observation that much of the borrowed Slavic vocabulary in this dialect appears to come from eastern Slovak rather than from the more expected Polish. This observation somewhat contradicts Rozwadowski’s own comments included at the very beginning of the introduction, where he contends that his informants were not likely recent arrivals in the Zakopane region from Slovakia.

26: Savchev, Savcho (2004). Rromanu-dasikanu-anglikanu vak = Romsko-bŭlgarsko-angliĭski rechnik = Romany-Bulgarian-English dictionary. Sofiya: SDS. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61479004. [Text in Bulgarian.]

A unidirectional dictionary of the Romani spoken in the city of Sliven in Bulgaria. Although the compiler does not specify the dialect, it presumably belongs to the Drindari dialect of the East Balkan dialect group. The compiler declares in his introduction, quite emphatically so, that the dictionary is not intended to be scientific and that it was not created for linguists. His aim, rather, is for it to be used for creative writing in Romani. In this sense, the dictionary is neither strictly descriptive nor normative. Because of this admission, it would be unfair to be too critical of particular technical points. However, the compiler need not be quite so defensive, as he has done a very respectable job collecting material for this dialect and labeling lexical items appropriately. He includes a number of Hindi and Sanskrit words, appropriately labeled, which he justifies based on the literary aims of the dictionary, as it offers writers a larger fund of vocabulary from which to choose. Lemmas are labeled according to basic part of speech, and in fact, in a more granular manner than many other dictionaries. The presentation of the verb is, however, somewhat confusing. Occasionally, several personal forms of a verb are given as different lemmas, and aorist tense forms are not provided. The orthography, which is a basic Latin script without any diacritics except <ḥ>, is somewhat idiosyncratic. Lemmas are accompanied with a pronunciation guide in Bulgarian Cyrillic script, including word stress. The main differences from the Latin script used in many other dictionaries are: <w> /ə/, <rr> (uvular /ʁ/, and <ḥ> (voiceless velar fricative /x/). The more typical letters <š>, <č>, and <ž> are written as <sh>, <ch>, <zh>. Aspirated consonants are written as <kh>, <ph>, <th>.

27: Sergievskii, M. V. and Barannikov A. P. (1981). Gipsy-Russian dictionary = TSygansko-russkiĭ slovarʹ: okolo 10 000 slov s prilozheniem grammatiki TSyganskogo iazyka. New York: Chalidze Publications. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9009705. [Text in Russian]

Facsimile reprint of the 1938 edition published by Gosudarstvennoe izdatelʹstvo inostrannykh i natsionalʹnykh slovareĭ, Moskva. See Sergievskiĭ (1938).

28: Slavov, Atanas (1999). Gypsy-English English-Gypsy: concise dictionary. New York: Hippocrene. ISBN: 9780781807753. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/264706094. [Text in English]

A descriptive, bidirectional Romani-English dictionary reflecting the vocabulary of two Bulgarian Romani dialects, the Sofia Erli dialect and the dialect of the Christian Roma of Sliven. The Romani-English section contains approximately 3200 lemmas. The lemmas are not specifically labeled for the source dialect. The compiler claims the dictionary is based on pre-existing works on these dialect as well as his own personal collection of “street jargon” and interviews conducted with Rroma informants ranging in age from 22-91 years of age. 

29: Tahirović Sijerčić, Hedina (2010). Bosansko-romski i Romsko-bosanski rječnik = Bosnaki-Rromani thaj Rromani-Bosnaji alavari. [Bosnian-Romani and Romani-Bosnian dictionary]. Mostar: Federalno ministarstvo obrazovanja i nauke. ISBN: 9789958111037. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/730115444. [Text in Bosnian]

A rather basic bidirectional Romani-Bosnian dictionary based on the Gurbet dialect of Bosnia and Hercegovina. The compiler does not explicitly indicate whether the intent of the dictionary is descriptive or normative. She explains that many of the terms have been selected from the dictionary by Uhlik (1983). However, she has also consulted other dictionaries, including those of the Canadian Rrom scholar, Ronald Lee, who studies North American Romani variants, so it is unclear how those selections fit in with the otherwise Gurbet-dialect coverage. Lemmas are labeled according to the basics, such as gender and part of speech. Verbs are simply labeled as “v.” with no further information about transitivity, however, as transitivity is usually clear in the Bosnian verb gloss, this is not a great hindrance. Past tense forms are not indicated, which makes the verb entries less useful. The orthography used is the basic Latin alphabet without any of the South Slavic diacritics, e.g. <ch> and <sh> rather than <č> and <š>. Word stress is not indicated. The compiler explains in the foreword that this orthography was chosen because it has been widely represented in electronic communications, such as emails, blogs, and social media, thus having become an informal common convention comprehensible to a wide cross-section of speakers.

For an updated edition of this dictionary see Tahirović Sijerčić, (2013).

30: Tahirović Sijerčić, Hedina (2013). Rromano alavari: Gurbetcko-Englecko, Englecko-Gurbetcko = Romani dictionary: Gurbeti-English, English-Gurbeti. Toronto: Magoria Books. ISBN: 9780981162683. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/882558043. [Text in English]

A bidirectional Romani-English dictionary and brief grammatical sketch focusing primarily on the vocabulary of the mostly settled Romani groups in Bosnia and Hercegovina, specifically the Gurbet and Chergash groups. The extent of the lexical items provided is quite impressive, and it is an excellent starter dictionary for any student wishing to become familiar with the most common vocabulary. A modest number of contextual examples are also included. The compiler has based her dictionary primarily on core Romani words, i.e. those most likely to be common across multiple dialects, however she also includes many neologisms that have been coined by Ronald Lee (see other works by Lee in this bibliography) and others, and that have been used in the Romani journal, Romano lil, published in Toronto, of which she was an editor until 2002.

31: TSvetkov, Georgiĭ Nikolaevich (2001). Romanė vorbi: tsygansko-russkiĭ i russko-tsyganskiĭ slovarʹ: lovarʹskiĭ dialekt. [Romani word: Romani-Russian and Russian-Romani dictionary (Lovari dialect)]. Moskva: Apostrof. ISBN: 9785941550098. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50867066. [Text in Russian]

A normative, bidirectional Romani-Russian dictionary of the Lovari dialect. The writer of the introduction, N.G. Demeter, states that the dictionary is the first published attempt in Russia to codify the widely spoken Lovari dialect. Lemmas are not labeled for part of speech, however, these are generally clear from the Russian glosses. Nouns are labeled for gender and include the plural forms. Verbs are accompanied by the aorist form but there is no further verbal information provided. Since verbs are cited in the 1st person singular form and there is no grammatical sketch, the differentiation in the 3rd person aorist forms of transitive and non-transitive verbs that exists in many dialects is not clear, nor are the conjugations and other tense forms clear, except for isolated separate entries such as сам ‘we are’. Stress is only indicated in a small number of cases, e.g. агóр ‘end’, although it is unclear why only in these cases. Although this dialect has both short and long vowels, the distinction is not usually phonemic, therefore the dictionary only indicates these in a few cases by doubling the vowel letter, e.g. пативаало ‘honest’.

32: Uhlik, Rade (1947). Srpskohrvatsko-ciganski rečnik = Romane alava. [Serbo-Croatian-Romani dictionary]. Sarajevo: Svjetlost. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7449809. [Text in Serbian (Latin script)]

This unidirectional, descriptive dictionary of the Gurbet dialect spoken in parts of Serbia, Bosnia, Montenegro, and Macedonia is a predecessor of Uhlik’s Srpskohrvatsko-romsko-engleski rečnik (1983). The compiler mentions the term Gurbet, which he also associates with Čergaši, ‘nomads’, once in the introduction. Thereafter he refers to this language as ‘Serbian Romani’. He distinguishes this dialect from the Vlax Romani varieties spoken in Yugoslavia, although Gurbet is now considered by most dialectologists of Romani to be a Southern Vlax Romani dialect. This dictionary, like the 1983 edition, is somewhat difficult to use, and the scope is somewhat unclear. Part of the confusion stems from this use of the term ‘Serbian Romani’ since most of the speakers of this variant at the time of writing resided in Bosnia and Hercegovina, with smaller numbers in Serbia and Montenegro, and the fewest in Macedonia. Regardless of the rather confusing dialect discussion, the lexicological material relates to a variety of Vlax Romani dialects, spoken at that time in the territories mentioned above. The compiler further explains that, even among these closely related dialects, the degree of linguistic influence from the Balkan Romance languages, Romanian and the Vlach dialects, varies substantially. This explanation is helpful in understanding the construction of the dictionary, in that it is sometimes difficult to draw clear lines between any lexical item and its relation to specific dialects.

33: Uhlik, Rade (1983). Srpskohrvatsko-romsko-engleski rečnik: romengo alavari. [Serbo-Croatian-Romani English dictionary]. Sarajevo: Svjetlost. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11317216. [Text in Serbian (Latin script)]

This unidirectional, multilingual and multidialectal dictionary based on the Gurbet dialect is an updated edition to Uhlik (1947). The introduction explains how the dictionary is constructed, and discusses the classification of Romani dialects and Romani phonology. There is no discussion at all of grammar. He states that words appear: ‘first in Serbo-Croatian, then a translation (one or more) in Gurbet, then there is a translation in our local Vlax Romani, then translations in Turkish or Greek Romani, and more rarely in cant (i.e. secret language). At the end is a translation in English.’ Since the words are not labeled for dialect, and the number of words per entry can vary, separated only by commas, it is not possible to easily determine to which dialect a gloss belongs without already being familiar with the dialects. This is quite frustrating considering the wealth of forms collected and presented. It is left up the user’s devices how to deal with an unwieldy entry such as: “plašim se, bojim se, darav, χav dar, nakhavav darape, darav mae, dar mae, tradav an darape, trašav, trašinavav, lebma fira, χav trušuj, daranjovu, darandivav», I am afraid (of), I fear.”

The compiler, in fair disclosure, states that he has left out many of the features that make dictionaries of the great world languages ‘difficult to use.’ However, I would argue that it is exactly these missing features that would have made this dictionary more useable. He has chosen to not include word stress, as ‘stress varies from dialect to dialect, and even within the same dialect.’ The only manner of grammatical marking for lemmas is the gender of nouns, for which plural forms are not given. Beyond gender, there is no further labeling of parts of speech. The entries consist solely of lemmas and the glosses. There are no contextual examples provided.

The orthography used is the Serbian Latin alphabet, with the addition of the letters <x> for the voiceless velar fricative /x/), <r> (for the voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/), <i> (similar to the Romanian vowel î), <ć> (for the sound more palatal than <č>, i.e. /tɕ), and the digraphs <čh>, <ćh>, <kh>, <ph>, <th>.

34: Vasilev, TSvetan (2007). Bŭlgarsko-tsiganski rechnik. [Bulgarian-Romani dictionary]. Sofiia: Enovche. ISBN: 9789548729394. WorldCat: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/173205627. [Text in Bulgarian]

A unidirectional Bulgarian-Romani wordlist of approximately 2800 words, of the Erli dialect of Sofia, Bulgaria. The compiler states that this wordlist is based on the earlier unidirectional Romani-Bulgarian wordlist by Malikov (1992). This version does in fact appear to contain the original Romani and Bulgarian words in Malikov’s wordlist, merely changing the direction of the dictionary. Since in all other ways the wordlist is very similar to that of Malikov, please see the entry for Malikov for my comments.

35: Wlislocki, Heinrich von (2016). Sprache der transsilvanischen Zigeuner: Grammatik, Wörterbuch. Norderstedt: Hanse. ISBN: 9783743425989. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/979734291. [Text in German]

A print-on-demand facsimile of the 1884 edition with no additional content. Please see entry Wlislocki (1884).

36: Wolf, Siegmund A. (1987). Grosses Wörterbuch der Zigeunersprache (romani tsiw): Wortschatz deutscher und anderer europäischer Zigeunerdialekte. Hamburg: H Buske. ISBN: 9783871187773. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23162943. [Text in German]

A facsimile reprint of the original 1960 edition. See Wolf (1960).

37: Wolf, Siegmund A. (1993). Grosses Wörterbuch der Zigeunersprache (romani tsiw): Wortschatz deutscher und anderer europäischer Zigeunerdialekte. Hamburg: H Buske. ISBN: 3871187771. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/34534947. [Text in German]

A facsimile reprint of the original 1960 edition. See Wolf (1960).

38: Borrow, George (2007). Zincali, or, An account of the gypsies of Spain: with an original collection of their songs and poetry, and a copious dictionary of their language. Mairena del Aljarafe, Sevilla: Extramuros Edición. ISBN: 9788496784536. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/295046428. [Text in Spanish, English and Romani]

Reprint. See Borrow (1841).

39: Đurić, Rajko (2009). Romski glagoli, njihovo poreklo i značenje. [Romani verbs, their origins and meanings]. [Beograd]: [Pomoć deci]. ISBN: 9788690986316. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/550546105. [Serbian;]

Not a comprehensive dictionary, but rather a dictionary of core Romani verbs and their etymological origins from older Indic languages and their semantic and syntactic features.

40: Sergievskiĭ, M. V. and Barannikov A. P. (1938). TSygansko-russkiĭ slovarʹ: okolo 10000 slov s prilozheniem grammatiki tsyganskogo iazyka. [Romani-Russian dictionary]. Moskva: Gos izd-vo inostrannykh i natsional’nykh slovarei. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/863278672. [Text in Russian]

A unidirectional Romani-Russian dictionary of approximately 10,000 words and grammar. The compilers claim it is the first attempt to capture the lexicological fund of Romani spoken in the Soviet Union in a published dictionary. The material appears to come primarily from the Russian portions of the USSR. The compilers refer to the Romani variant as “southern dialect,” however, I believe the lexicon reflects what scholars typically call “Northern Romani.” Lemmas are labeled for part of speech and for certain stylistic categories, such as poetic or colloquial. Abbreviations for cities are provided where words are particularly regional. Nouns are marked for gender, and plural forms are given. Verbs are cited in the 2nd-person singular forms for the present tense, and in the 1st-person singular for the aorist forms. Verbs are unlabeled, and no information is provided about transitivity or valency. Word stress is indicated in all cases. The dictionary provides ample phraseological examples.

The orthography is based on Russian Cyrillic with the addition of only one letter, <ґ>, which represents /h/. The aspirated consonants are written as the digraphs <кх>, <пх>, <тх>, and <чж>. /dʒ/ is written as <дж>. The distinction between /tɕ/ and /tʃh/ is handled somewhat differently, the consonant <ч> remaining the same. The /tɕ/ is indicated by following <ч> with the Russian jotized vowel, e.g. <я>, <ю>, or <ё>, e.g. чяво ‘boy’, while the affricate /tʃh/ will be follоwed by the non-yotized vowel, e.g. чанг ‘foot’. However, most words beginning with <ч> are crossed-referenced both ways, so the e.g., чар and чяр ‘grass’, and чури and чюри ‘knife’. It is unclear whether this implies that the distinction between these two sounds had been neutralized in this dialect, or whether it is simply confusion stemming from the strict rules of Russian orthography which dictate which vowels can be combined with certain consonants.

41: Courthiade, Marcel (2004). Fjalor rromisht-shqip: i të folmeve rrome në përdorim në Shqipëri: meckarisht, kabuxhisht, rupanisht e shkodranisht. [Romani-Albanian dictionary: dialects spoken in Albania]. Tirana: Rromani Baxt. WorldCat: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55749155. [Text in Albanian]

A descriptive, bidirectional Romani-Albanian dictionary and grammar covering a number of closely-related dialects spoken in Albania, i.e. Mechkari, Kabudji, Rupani, and Shkodrani. This is a carefully compiled and scientific dictionary. The orthography used is the International Romani Union Standard Alphabet, designed by Courthiade. All parts of speech are labeled, and aorist forms of verbs are provided. Word stress is indicated when not word-final. Plurals and object-case stems are provided for nouns, as the formation of these can differ between thematic and athematic nouns. Special attention is given to verbs, which are labeled as transitive, intransitive, reflexive, reciprocal, or causative.

In addition to being descriptive, the dictionary also has normative aims, alerting the user to a preferable choice when a particular word may not be widely understood by other Romani speakers outside of the immediate speech area. The dictionary includes a large selection of words from European Romani dialects that not are not well understood among speakers in Albania, Kosovo, and Macedonia. These words are enclosed in angle brackets. This is very useful for studying these closely related variants in the context of other Europe dialects. The dictionary also includes numerous phrases and contextual examples.

42: Wlislocki, Heinrich von (1884). Sprache der transsilvanischen Zigeuner: Grammatik, Wörterbuch. [Language of the Transylvanian Rroma: grammar, dictionary]. Leipzig: Wilhelm Friedrich. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/504790413. (OA version: https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001873576 ). [Text in German]

A descriptive grammar and dictionary of Romani spoken in Transylvania at the time of writing. Although the compiler does not specify a dialect in his introduction, based on the forms given for the verb ‘to be’ in the grammar section this appears to reflect the Romungro dialect. The compiler also clarifies that the main differences in the three variants spoken in Transylvania pertain to the inclusion of loanwords from the three major constituent languages of Transylvania at that time, i.e. Hungarian, Romanian, and German.

Lemmas are labeled for basic part of speech and gender of nouns is indicated, although plural forms are not provided. Verbs are cited in the 1st-person singular. No aorist forms are provided, so it would not have been possible to determine participles and aorist forms for irregular verbs based on the lemma alone. No etymologies are given.

The orthography used is somewhat unusual for a work in German. The Latin script is used with the following distinctive letters: <c> for /tʃ/, <ç> for /x/, <j> for /dᴣ/ as in English, <ñ> for /ɲ/, <sh>, for /ʃ/, and <y> for /j/. The acute accent is used above vowels to indicate vowel length, and since the acute can occur on multiple syllables, e.g. táváv, ‘I cook’, this cannot be relied on to indicate word stress.  There are a number of digraphs for diphthongs (<áe>, <ái>, <au>, <ei>, <ui>, <oi>, <oe>), but the distinction between the first two is not explained. <oe> presumably reflects the common Hungarian and German vowel <ö> in loanwords from that language. Aspiration is only indicated for two consonants with <ç> following the consonant, i.e. <pç> and <tç>, but not for /kh/, e.g. /kher/ is written as kér. There is no distinction made between the typical /r/ and the uvular /ʁ/ sound.

43: Sinclair, Albert Thomas and George Fraser Black (1915). American-Romani vocabulary. New York: New York Public Library. WorldCat: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/670364327. (OA version: https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001261633 ). [Text in English]

This vocabulary of Romani, spoken in the United States at the time of writing, was compiled from Sinclair’s manuscripts that are held in the New York Public Library. The lexicological material was collected personally by the compiler based on his interviews with American-Rroma informants, either born in Great Britain, or recent decedents of British Rroma. The introduction also states that Sinclair noted that none of the Rroma he consulted were familiar with all the words, although many were familiar with most of them. Based on the origin of the speakers, it is safe to assume this vocabulary reflects the English-Romani variant, also known as Romanichal.

The vocabulary covered is rather random, and many common Romani words are absent. Words are not labeled according to part of speech, nor are plural or aorist forms provided. The citation form for verbs is sometimes inconsistent, e.g., ‘to live’, is cited as jiv, which is simply the verb root, whereas ‘to go’ is cited as jal, i.e., in the 3rd person singular indicative form. Forms cited in the grammar of Turkish Romani by A.G. Paspates are included for comparison as the compiler believed Turkish Romani to be the “purest form of the language.” Very few contextual examples are given. Hindi cognates are provided for words of Indic origin if they are similar. The orthography is based on that of Sampson (1926) and other linguists who have written on British Romani. The caron is used over consonants in <č> and <š>. /ᴣ/ is written with the English <j>, and the voiceless velar fricative /x/ is written as <x>. Long vowels are indicated with the macron. There is no distinction made for aspirated consonants or the uvular /ʁ/.

 

 

 

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